The Mandalay Earthquake of March 28, 2025: A Catastrophe in Myanmar’s Heartland
On March 28, 2025, at 12:50 p.m. local time (06:20 UTC), a magnitude 7.7–7.9 earthquake struck central Myanmar, with its epicenter approximately 16 kilometers northwest of Sagaing and 17 kilometers west of Mandalay, the country’s second-largest city. This seismic event, one of the most powerful to hit Myanmar since the 1912 Maymyo earthquake, unleashed widespread devastation across the Sagaing Region, Mandalay, Naypyidaw, and beyond, with tremors felt as far as Bangkok, Thailand, over 1,000 kilometers away. The shallow depth of the quake—around 10 kilometers—amplified its destructive force, resulting in a Modified Mercalli Intensity of X (Extreme) in the hardest-hit areas. By early April, the death toll was estimated to exceed 3,000, with some sources suggesting it could climb to 10,000 as rescue efforts uncovered the full scale of the tragedy. This essay examines the geological and human dimensions of the Mandalay Earthquake, its immediate and cascading impacts, the challenges of response in a war-torn nation, and the broader lessons for seismic resilience in vulnerable regions.
#### Geological Context: The Sagaing Fault and Transboundary Risk
Myanmar lies at the volatile intersection of the Indian Plate and the Burma microplate, a tectonically active region prone to significant seismic activity. The earthquake originated along the Sagaing Fault, a major strike-slip fault that accommodates the relative motion between these plates. The fault’s history includes six magnitude 7.0 or greater earthquakes within 250 kilometers of the 2025 event since 1900, including a magnitude 7.0 quake in January 1990 that caused significant damage. The 2025 rupture spanned multiple segments of the fault, including the Pyu, Naypyidaw, Meiktila, and southern Sagaing segments, overlapping with rupture zones from earlier quakes in 1929 and 1930. A USGS seismic station in Naypyidaw recorded peak ground acceleration of 0.6231 g and ground velocity of 161.42 cm/s, underscoring the quake’s intensity.[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)
The shallow depth of the earthquake exacerbated its impact, as shallow quakes transfer more energy to the surface, causing intense shaking. The USGS’s Prompt Assessment of Global Earthquakes for Response (PAGER) system issued a Red alert, predicting severe fatalities and economic losses, with at least 415,000 people in Mandalay, Bago, Naypyidaw, and Sagaing exposed to extreme shaking. The quake’s effects extended far beyond Myanmar due to geological teleconnections. In Bangkok, soft marine clay soils amplified seismic waves, intensifying shaking despite the distance from the epicenter. This transboundary seismic risk highlights the interconnected nature of geological hazards in Southeast Asia, where urban centers like Bangkok, built on vulnerable substrates, face amplified threats from distant quakes.[](https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured-story/m77-mandalay-burma-myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.unescap.org/blog/earthquake-28-march-2025-unpacking-hidden-seismic-risks-beneath-our-feet)
#### Immediate Impacts: Destruction Across Myanmar and Beyond
The Mandalay Earthquake caused catastrophic damage to infrastructure and communities, particularly in Myanmar’s urban centers. In Mandalay, a city of 1.5 million, the collapse of modern and historic structures underscored the region’s unpreparedness for seismic events. The Sky Villa Condominium, a 12-story complex built in 2017 and marketed as “earthquake-resistant,” collapsed, burying an unknown number of residents and becoming a grim symbol of flawed urban development. The Ma Soe Yane Monastery, one of Mandalay’s largest, crumbled, with videos showing monks filming the wreckage moments before further collapse. Mandalay University’s main building also collapsed and caught fire, adding to the chaos. The historic Mandalay Palace and numerous pagodas in Amarapura sustained severe damage, erasing cultural landmarks.[](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/01/world/asia/myanmar-mandalay-earthquake-condo.html)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/powerful-earthquake-strikes-myanmar)[](https://www.npr.org/2025/03/29/g-s1-57186/photos-see-the-aftermath-of-the-earthquake-in-myanmar-and-thailand)
In Sagaing, the city closest to the epicenter, the destruction was equally dire. The 90-year-old Ava Bridge, a colonial-era structure spanning the Irrawaddy River, partially collapsed, severing a critical link between Sagaing and Mandalay and delaying rescue efforts. The Yadanabon Bridge, another vital crossing, was temporarily closed, further isolating communities. Reports described decomposing bodies trapped under rubble, with the “smell of death” pervading the city as temperatures soared. In Naypyidaw, the military-built capital, the earthquake damaged the new airport, railway bridges, and eight-lane highways, disrupting transportation networks. A hospital in Naypyidaw was overwhelmed, with injured patients treated outside due to structural damage.[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/30/smell-of-death-fills-the-air-near-epicentre-of-myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/30/smell-of-death-fills-the-air-near-epicentre-of-myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/30/smell-of-death-fills-the-air-near-epicentre-of-myanmar-earthquake)
The quake’s reach extended to neighboring countries. In Thailand, a 33-story skyscraper under construction in Bangkok’s Chatuchak district collapsed, killing at least eight people and trapping dozens of workers. Bangkok was declared a disaster area, and a state of emergency was imposed as urban rail systems and airports underwent safety checks. In China’s Yunnan province, the border city of Ruili reported injuries and damaged homes, while tremors were felt in Sichuan and as far as Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, where over 400 apartments were affected. Cambodia, Bangladesh, and India also reported tremors, illustrating the quake’s regional footprint.[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/powerful-earthquake-strikes-myanmar)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/magnitude-7-7-earthquake-in-myanmar-tremors-felt-in-thailand-all-we-know)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)
#### Human Toll: A Mounting Tragedy
The human cost of the Mandalay Earthquake was staggering, with estimates of fatalities and injuries evolving as rescue operations progressed. By March 30, Myanmar’s military junta reported over 1,600 deaths and 3,400 injuries, while later estimates from state media and the USGS suggested the toll could exceed 3,000, with a potential upper bound of 10,000. In Mandalay, at least 90 people were believed trapped in a single collapsed apartment block, with civilians resorting to bare-handed rescues due to a lack of heavy machinery. Sagaing reported nearly 90 bodies recovered compared to just 36 survivors, with monasteries and nunneries among the hardest hit. In Naypyidaw, a hospital reported 20 deaths, while local media documented fatalities in Taungoo (three in a mosque collapse) and Aungban (two in a hotel collapse).[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)[](https://www.nytimes.com/live/2025/03/28/world/myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.bbc.com/news/live/c4gex01m7n5t)
Thailand reported at least 11 deaths, primarily from the Bangkok skyscraper collapse, with dozens of workers still missing. In Vietnam, one person died from shock, and up to 11,400 injuries were reported across the region. The elderly and children were particularly vulnerable, with reports of young survivors, like an eight-year-old boy in Mandalay, traumatized by falling debris. In Sagaing’s poorer neighborhoods, built on unstable ground like garbage dumps, fires triggered by the quake compounded the suffering.[](https://www.bbc.com/news/live/c4gex01m7n5t)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)
The true scale of the disaster may remain unclear for weeks due to Myanmar’s ongoing civil war, restricted media access, and damaged communication networks. The junta’s tight control over information, coupled with downed internet and phone lines, limited real-time reporting, while the USGS noted that a full assessment could take months. Amnesty International and local sources warned that the junta’s history of underreporting casualties and suppressing disaster narratives could obscure the extent of the loss.[](https://www.nytimes.com/live/2025/03/28/world/myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/strong-earthquake-central-myanmar-panic-bangkok-2025-03-28/)[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)
#### Response Efforts: Challenges in a Fractured Nation
The earthquake struck a Myanmar already reeling from a civil war that began with the military coup in February 2021. The conflict between the junta, ethnic rebel groups, and pro-democracy militias like the People’s Defence Force (PDF) has displaced over 3.5 million people and left 20 million in need of humanitarian aid. This context posed immense challenges to rescue and relief efforts, compounded by damaged infrastructure and political fragmentation.[](https://www.npr.org/2025/03/28/nx-s1-5343417/myanmar-thailand-earthquake-bangkok-mandalay)
In Mandalay and Sagaing, civilians and local fire services led initial rescue operations, often without adequate equipment. A rescue team in Mandalay reported digging with bare hands, saving one woman after 30 hours but recovering far more bodies than survivors. The Myanmar Red Cross provided first aid and pre-hospital care, deploying teams to Mandalay and activating an Emergency Operations Center, but struggled to reach hard-hit areas due to downed power lines and collapsed bridges. The junta declared a state of emergency in six regions—Sagaing, Mandalay, Magway, eastern Shan State, Naypyidaw, and Bago—and issued a rare call for international aid, a departure from its historically isolationist stance.[](https://www.bbc.com/news/live/c4gex01m7n5t)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/30/smell-of-death-fills-the-air-near-epicentre-of-myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/magnitude-7-7-earthquake-in-myanmar-tremors-felt-in-thailand-all-we-know)
International response was swift but faced logistical and political hurdles. The United Nations activated the International Charter Space and Major Disasters, providing satellite imagery to aid coordination. The World Health Organization dispatched 60 tonnes of medical supplies, including surgical kits and mobile tents, while the European Union provided €2.5 million and airlifted 80 tons of emergency supplies. China, a key junta ally, sent rescue teams and pledged 100 million yuan ($13.77 million) in aid, with supplies arriving by March 31. South Korea, India, Russia, and Japan also contributed teams and resources. Direct Relief, in coordination with the ASEAN Coordinating Center for Humanitarian Assistance, mobilized to support overwhelmed healthcare facilities.[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/magnitude-7-7-earthquake-in-myanmar-tremors-felt-in-thailand-all-we-know)
However, the junta’s control over aid distribution raised concerns. Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International criticized restrictions requiring humanitarian organizations to submit volunteer lists and itemized aid inventories, potentially delaying or weaponizing relief in quake-affected areas. The National Unity Government (NUG), a shadow pro-democracy group, announced a two-week pause in offensive military operations to focus on rescue coordination, urging ethnic groups and civilians to cooperate. Meanwhile, the junta continued airstrikes in rebel-held areas, including a bombing in Singu Township on March 31 that injured residents and destroyed homes, undermining relief efforts.[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)[](https://www.cnn.com/2025/03/29/asia/myanmar-earthquake-mandalay-explainer-hnk-intl/index.html)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)
In Thailand, rescue operations focused on the Bangkok skyscraper collapse, where heavy equipment was deployed to search for trapped workers. Criticism emerged over delayed SMS warnings, and an investigation into the collapse revealed substandard steel rebars, highlighting corruption in construction practices. Thai authorities declared a state of emergency and closed schools, while Chinese disaster specialists assisted in the inquiry.[](https://www.npr.org/2025/03/29/g-s1-57186/photos-see-the-aftermath-of-the-earthquake-in-myanmar-and-thailand)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)[](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2025_Myanmar_earthquake)
#### Broader Implications: Seismic Risks and Resilience Gaps
The Mandalay Earthquake exposed critical vulnerabilities in Myanmar’s infrastructure and governance, as well as regional seismic risks. Rapid urbanization in cities like Mandalay and Yangon has outpaced seismic safety measures, with many buildings, including modern complexes like Sky Villa, lacking adequate earthquake resistance. The United Nations Development Programme has warned that Myanmar’s construction practices fail to account for seismic risks, a problem compounded by poverty and political instability. The collapse of critical infrastructure—bridges, highways, and airports—further highlighted the need for resilient design, particularly in a country prone to large-scale quakes.[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/magnitude-7-7-earthquake-in-myanmar-tremors-felt-in-thailand-all-we-know)[](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/01/world/asia/myanmar-mandalay-earthquake-condo.html)[](https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/28/magnitude-7-7-earthquake-in-myanmar-tremors-felt-in-thailand-all-we-know)
The transboundary nature of the quake underscored the importance of regional cooperation. Bangkok’s amplified shaking due to soft soils serves as a warning for other Southeast Asian cities built on similar geology. The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) called for strengthened global seismic data sharing, investment in early warning systems, and retrofitting of critical infrastructure like hospitals and schools. Thailand’s commitment to cell-based broadcasting for earthquake alerts in 2025 is a step forward, but regional disparities in resources and preparedness remain a challenge.[](https://www.unescap.org/blog/earthquake-28-march-2025-unpacking-hidden-seismic-risks-beneath-our-feet)[](https://www.unescap.org/blog/earthquake-28-march-2025-unpacking-hidden-seismic-risks-beneath-our-feet)[](https://www.unescap.org/blog/earthquake-28-march-2025-unpacking-hidden-seismic-risks-beneath-our-feet)
Myanmar’s civil war added a layer of complexity, as political divisions and ongoing violence hampered relief efforts. The junta’s appeal for aid, while pragmatic, did not guarantee equitable distribution, and reports of military restrictions suggest a continuation of its pattern of controlling narratives and resources. The earthquake also exacerbated the plight of displaced populations, with over 28 million people in the affected regions already in need of assistance. The trauma inflicted on survivors, particularly children, will require long-term psychosocial support, a resource scarce in a nation grappling with multiple crises.[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)[](https://disasterphilanthropy.org/disasters/2025-myanmar-and-thailand-earthquake/)[](https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwyqe7g077lo)
#### Critical Perspective: Questioning the Narrative
While official reports from the junta and international agencies provide a framework for understanding the earthquake’s impact, they must be approached with skepticism. The junta’s history of suppressing disaster scales, as noted by Amnesty International, raises questions about the accuracy of early casualty figures. The USGS’s higher estimate of a potential 10,000 deaths aligns with the quake’s intensity and population density but contrasts with state media’s lower figures, suggesting possible underreporting to maintain control amid civil unrest. Similarly, the junta’s call for international aid, while framed as a humanitarian gesture, may serve to bolster its legitimacy and divert resources to loyalist areas, a tactic observed in past crises.[](https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/strong-earthquake-central-myanmar-panic-bangkok-2025-03-28/)[](https://www.nytimes.com/live/2025/03/28/world/myanmar-earthquake)[](https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2025/03/28/myanmar-quake-77-bangkok-thailand/)
The international response, while robust, also warrants scrutiny. Aid from countries like China and Russia, both allies of the junta, could reinforce the military’s grip on power, while Western contributions risk being entangled in geopolitical rivalries. The focus on immediate relief, while critical, may overshadow the need for long-term reconstruction and governance reforms to address Myanmar’s systemic vulnerabilities. The collapse of supposedly “earthquake-resistant” structures like Sky Villa points to deeper issues of corruption and regulatory failure, which neither the junta nor international donors have fully addressed.[](https://www.cnn.com/2025/03/29/asia/myanmar-earthquake-mandalay-explainer-hnk-intl/index.html)[](https://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/01/world/asia/myanmar-mandalay-earthquake-condo.html)
#### Conclusion: A Call for Resilience and Accountability
The Mandalay Earthquake of March 28, 2025, was a devastating reminder of Myanmar’s seismic vulnerability and the compounding effects of political instability. Its impacts—over 3,000 deaths, thousands injured, and widespread destruction—reverberated across Southeast Asia, exposing gaps in preparedness and response. The quake’s transboundary reach, from Mandalay’s collapsed monasteries to Bangkok’s fallen skyscraper, underscores the need for regional cooperation in seismic monitoring and infrastructure resilience. In Myanmar, the civil war and junta’s control pose ongoing barriers to equitable relief and recovery, demanding that international aid be delivered transparently and inclusively.
Moving forward, Myanmar and its neighbors must prioritize earthquake-resistant construction, early warning systems, and community preparedness, drawing on models like Japan’s rigorous building codes. The international community should support these efforts while holding the junta accountable for aid distribution and casualty reporting. For the people of Mandalay, Sagaing, and beyond, the path to recovery will be long, marked by grief and resilience in equal measure. The earthquake, while a natural disaster, was amplified by human failures—corrupt construction, neglected infrastructure, and a fractured society. Addressing these root causes is as critical as clearing the rubble.[](https://www.unescap.org/blog/earthquake-28-march-2025-unpacking-hidden-seismic-risks-beneath-our-feet)
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